Nature of hate and enmity

Hatred enables a person to look at another without seeing their humanity; it transforms the experiencing subject into an object; it lowers and destroys the being deserving of compassion. However, hatred never completely blinds us to humanity, agency, or dignity; rather, it requires acknowledging their presence in the target of hatred. Hatred is always directed toward a perceived moral agent—hating rocks or plants is nearly impossible—yet it fundamentally denies, degrades, and negates that agency.

Hatred is a state of mind that presents its target as worthy of hatred, corrupt, bad, or evil. This often leads to an exaggeration of the target’s negative qualities, distorting perceptions and conceptions of the object of hatred. At the same time, this distorted perception further reinforces the hater’s view of the target as hate worthy.

My philosophical project, “Enemy–Racism and Other Excuses for Hatred,” asks: What if we have misunderstood the relationship between hatred and its manifestations? What if, for example, racism is not the cause and explanation of hatred but rather a consequence of preceding hatred—what if many apparent manifestations of hatred are attempts to rationalize a prior, instinctual hostile reflex?

If my hypothesis is correct, mere education and the dissemination of truthful information are not sufficient measures to suppress the hostile attitudes prevailing in our society. Educational efforts can even exacerbate divisions when hostile reactions turn towards those interventions that also appear as threats to one’s own identity, system of beliefs, and value commitments. Thus, attempts to influence these beliefs and values are easily perceived as expressions of hostility.

My project compiles various philosophical perspectives on hatred and enmity. Hatred intriguingly differs from reactive emotions (anger, annoyance) and relationships that require reciprocity (hostility and friendship). According to some, hatred always possesses a moral dimension, which is why the object of hatred appears morally evil and objectionable. Hostility also seems to provide fertile ground for manipulation, which contemporary purveyors of extremist ideologies exploit extensively.

I aim to find a conceptually clear model of the mental structure of a person experiencing hatred, particularly the interplay and interaction of emotions, cognitions, and conations in the genesis and development of persistent hostility. In this, I rely on Edward Westermarck’s moral psychology.

My project also uses philosophy of language to explore the generic generalizations that seem to be especially associated with hatred and negative beliefs. Based on semantic and behavioral research, it appears that the central power of our conceptual thinking, generality, plays a crucial role in the highly negative images of the object of hatred.

Furthermore, I develop David Kaplan’s semantic model of certain expressions, known as expressives and ventilatives, whose correct use does not seem to depend on the truth of what is said but is primarily based on whether they adequately convey the speaker’s experiential world and emotional reactions.

This projected is funded by Olga and Vilho Linnamo Foudation and The Finnish Cultural Foundation.